Sources Of Law And European Convention On Human Rights Essay

Starting with the fact that sources of law in Wales and England are similar, there are 4 sources of law, which are: Statute Law, Common Law, European Law and European Convention on Human Rights. First of all, Statute law is a written law passed by a legislature on the state of federal level. An example of it would be  «Theft Act 1968 ». It is the first and primary source of law and it is created by proposing a Bill in Parliament. After three readings of the bill in House of Commons and House of Lords and afterwards in Royal Assent is received and approved, then it becomes a satute which must be enforced by courts. Secondly, there is a Common Law. Common Law is created by judiciary and it is also known as  «case law ». However, the Common Law could be amended or overridden by Statute Law, EU LAW and/or Human Rights Law. Third is European union law. It was created as a result of European Communities Act 1972. There are four principal institutions, which are: The council of the EU, European Commission, European Parliament and European Court of Justice. They make the decisions concerning laws. Finally, there is European Convention on Human Rights. It came into effect in October 2000. It takes care about main provisions of the European convention of Human Rights into the UK law. Those sources of law divide in internal and external, Common and Statute are internal while European Union law and European convention on Human Rights are external laws. Internal laws refers to laws thatShow MoreRelatedWhy European Law ( Eu And Echr ) Has An Impact On The Uk1393 Words   |  6 PagesGaining an insight on How and Why European Law (EU and ECHR) has an impact on the UK can be challenging. Before overcoming this obstacle it is advised to acquire basic knowledge on the founding treaties and those currently in force. The sources of law and their effect will analyse, whether the UK should remain a part of the European Union or not. The end of WW2 resulted in the creation of an intergovernmental organization The United Nation, promoting Peace and Human Rights. In 1946, the British PrimeRead MoreHow European Law ( Eu And Echr ) Has An Impact On The Uk1394 Words   |  6 PagesGaining an insight on How and Why European Law (EU and ECHR) has an impact on the UK can be challenging. Before overcoming this obstacle it is advised to acquire basic knowledge on the founding treaties and those currently in force. The sources of law and their effect will analyse, whether the UK should remain a part of the European Union or not. The end of WW2 resulted in the creation of an intergovernmental organization The United Nation, promoting Peace and Human Rights. In 1946, the British PrimeRead More‘Write a Short Essay Critically and Concisely Discussing the Binding Sources of Law in Modern Ireland.’1409 Words   |  6 Pagesbinding sources of law in modern Ireland.’ Binding sources of law in Irish law are the sources created by the binding authorities, that is to say the rules which must be followed in adjudication. Adjudication is the fact that the judicial decision is binding on the parties involved in a case. Binding authorities must be distinguished from persuasive authorities. Sources coming from persuasive authorities can eventually be followed in certain circumstances. There is a hierarchy in the sources of IrishRead MoreThe Issue Of Parliamentary Sovereignty1481 Words   |  6 Pagesand dissolve any law which means any law passed by the parliament cannot be overruled by any court rules. No parliament, on the other hand can enact law that a future parliament cannot amend Which means that, they are the only figure that can change or reverse laws passed by the them. The UK is also noted to have bit and pieces of unwritten and uncodified constitution which mean the constitution is derived from a diverse source. Basically, the UK becoming a member of European Union in 1973 hasRead MoreThe Human Rights Act of 1998 and Its Judicial Impact1190 Words   |  5 PagesThe Human Rights Act of 1998 and its judicial impact In spite of the fact that there is much controversy when regarding human rights and the degree to which the authorities are determined to get actively involved in stopping significant crimes from being committed, its components basically remained the same. The European Court of Human Rights has the authority to determine the outcome of a trial involving a violation of human rights and all judges coming across such a case need to take into considerationRead MoreIs the Uks Constituition Becoming Increasingly Codified Essay843 Words   |  4 Pageshowever draws from several different sources such as; statutes laws, common law, conventions, EU laws, authoritative documents etc. Statute law, is a written law passed down by parliament for example the human rights act of 1998 which brought the European convention on human rights into British law, conventions is another source of the British constitution, they are unwritten laws considered binding on members of the political community for e xample the Salisbury convention which made sure that the houseRead MoreThe Rights And Duties Of The Employees And Employers Essay1459 Words   |  6 PagesExecutive Summary Employment law determines the rights and duties of both the employees and employers. it is one of the most important branch of law governing the mutual rights and liabilities of those two. It controls the interaction between the employees and the employers. If the acts done by employer or employee in contravening the rules and regulations of Employment law then he or she will be entitled to get remedy through the interference of court. Besides Primary legislations enacted in UKRead MoreEu and the Fundamental Rights..1449 Words   |  6 PagesThe European Community (EC) has expressed through treaty provision and case law that the protection of the fundamental rights of EC citizens is vitally important. However, the EC itself is not currently bound to a set of agreed fundamental rights. For years, the European Court of Justice (ECJ) has respected and protected fundamental rights by considering the position of state constitutions and the terms of the European Convention on Human Rig hts (ECHR). Yet, the ECJ is not bound to follow theseRead MoreWith reference to the source, describe 3 sources of the UK constitution.888 Words   |  4 PagesWith reference to the source, describe 3 sources of the UK constitution. Common Law: It includes legal principles that have been developed and applied by UK courts, also it is legal precedent made by judges concerning, for example, the 1931 Donoghue v. Stevenson case had important consequences for the definition of the law of negligence. Conventions: Established norms of political behaviour rooted in past experience rather than the law. For example, the Salisbury Convention states that the HouseRead MoreThe United Kingdom Of England And Northern Ireland1029 Words   |  5 PagesArguments by the UK: The United Kingdom of England and Northern Ireland believes that Ecuador has no legal right or basis to grant political or diplomatic asylum to Assange for various legal reasons that the Court is set to debate. First, the United Kingdom’s involvement in the topic comes from their obligation to extradite Julian Assange to Sweden under Article 35, Clause 3 of the Extradition Act of 2003. Since Sweden has filed for an EAW that has been approved by the UK, the UK is under a formal

Divorce A Complicated Subject - 1987 Words

Divorce: Causes Sierra Dickens November 8, 2014 FLHD 3360 David Heaton Abstract Divorce is a complicated subject. This paper is designed to look at three major issues that society feels are causes of divorce today. These three are basic incompatibility, sexual issues /infidelity, and money /arguments. The paper goes through all three and focuses on different aspects of them that I feel are important when considering a divorce. Introduction Utah courts refer to divorce as, â€Å"the proceeding that ends a marriage and all legal relationships between a husband and wife, except those specified in the divorce decree.† (Utah Legislature, 2014) It also says that there are many issues during and following a divorce such as custody, child support, alimony, and division of property. It is the job of the court to review each case and determine if a divorce is necessary, or if the couple must take further actions to receive a divorce. It is a process that can be extremely stressful and financially draining if there are underlying issues. Divorce can also be as easy as signing papers and moving on. Either way there are many different opinions on what the causes are for divorce. â€Å"Divorce is a complex event that can be viewed from multiple perspectives.† (Amato Previti, July 2003) There are many different theories that people have as to why a divorce happens. Many people say that divorce only happens when the couple fails to maintain the respect and careShow MoreRelatedWhy Is Love So Complicated?1212 Words   |  5 Pageshaven’t been answered up to this day. For instance â€Å"Why is love so complicated?† was one of the many questions that was left. Many could say that love is complicated because one person from the relationship isn’t putting their part into the relationship. However, during the Renaissance era one could say what caused love to be so complicated was education, religion and the new Church of England. Throughout history education was not a subject people saw as a main priority in one’s life. Society startedRead MoreDivorce : The Divorce Rate1662 Words   |  7 PagesThe divorce rate, while fluctuating over time, has reached high percentages lately. As Coltrane and Adams posit, the high divorce rates are due in part to the fact that the expectations of marriage are high in high esteem. When it does not work out, people are anxious to try again to find the perfect partner. Divorce is what allows people that opportunity (Coltrane and Adams p. 201). However, the intricacies of divorce are complicated. Much of the conversation of divorce is focused on fault andRead MoreLegal Advice For The Job Expenses For Production Of Income852 Words   |  4 PagesMost of the people in their lives at one point or another need legal advice or help, either it’s related to a divorce, leasing a house or writing will. These expenses might be deducible under the â€Å"Job Expenses and Ce rtain Miscellaneous Deduction† on the form 1040, Schedule A (subject to the 2% limit of Adjusted Gross Income). But not all of the fees for legal services are deductible. Internal Revenue Code doesn’t specify exactly what legal fees are deductable and what are not. However IRC providesRead MoreAbstract. Conflicts Happen Every Day Of Our Life And Are1649 Words   |  7 Pagesthe most important elements of a negotiation. Negotiations involve preparation, relationships and getting the other party to see things from your perspective. A divorce negotiation can be difficult because of the personal and business issues involved. Both parties normally go in expecting to receive everything that they ask for. A divorce negotiation can be emotional and stressful, especially when it involves children. This can sometimes bring about complex settlement issues. There is a middle groundRead MoreWomen During The Ottoman Empire1590 Words   |  7 Pagesin the Islamic legal structures was very complicated in the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Empire was a vast political entity that existed for more than five hundred years, making it impossible to question how the women in the whole Ottoman legal structure ought to be treated. In the Islamic Empires, all the wome n were treated based on the Islamic law; therefore, questioning these meant questioning the Islamic laws which was a taboo. Women as a legal subject forms a very diverse topic which can beRead MoreSolution to Divorce1574 Words   |  7 PagesWashington DC 20510 Dear Legislators: It is said by most scholarly articles and books they over 50 percent of marriages in the US end in divorce. Although this may not be the truth for some marriages, it is no secret that the California and even national divorce rate is at an all time high. Divorce is also the main cause of the degradation of the modern American family. Divorce can have lasting effects on all parties involved. It is a lasting and trying situation that effects children and causes a detrimentalRead MoreIn A â€Å"The Kid’S Guide To Divorce† By Lorrie Moore, A Young1650 Words   |  7 PagesIn a â€Å"The Kid’s Guide to Divorce† by Lorrie Moore, a young child is learning to cope and deal with her parent’s divorce in her own way which includes feeling the need to cater to each individual parent by selecting word choice that won’t make them feel uncomfortable. She even goes to the lengths of comparing them to scary characters on late night television which suggest that she is feeling more emotions. The story put an emphasize on the child’s perspective of what is happening and shows the trueRead More Marriage in 18th Century Europe Essay1004 Words   |  5 PagesThese restrictions tended to represent the interests of the wealthy and uphold patriarchal tradition. Backlash to these restrictions produced a number of undesir able practices, including promiscuity, wife-sale, and divorce. Before the eighteenth century, marriage was far less complicated. Verbal consent and consumation constituted legal marriage: once the knot was tied by such verbal exchanges it could not be undone: a valid marriage was technically indissoluble. Such vows could be made, moreoverRead MoreMarriage is a Committment to Your Spouse740 Words   |  3 Pageswould be no basis for the promise to love each other forever. A feeling comes and it may go.â€Å"―Erich Fromm. With love and promises comes a life changing situation- marriage. So at what age is it appropriate to marry? Teenage marriage has become a subject that many people have disagreed on over the last few decades. Some say that teenagers are not mature enough to marry, while others argue that if a teenager truly loves someone they should get married. If love is a promise, are teenagers preparedRead MoreWhy Polygamy Should Remain Illegal1328 Words   |  6 Pagesin what happens in their lives. Due to the various amount of w ives the man in the polygamous relationship might have depends, on how many children that will be born. Children could have a lot of insecurities due to the fact some children might be subject to favouritism. With so many children it would be hard to make everyone feel special without having jealousy. This leads to many children being neglected, â€Å"Nearly two-thirds of the families living at a polygamist group s ranch targeted in a high-profile

The English Language Systematically Degrades and Devalues...

The English Language Systematically Degrades and Devalues Women It is often argued that the English language needs to be modernised to keep pace with the rapidly changing societies in the world. One reason for this is many words and their usages are viewed as sexist, in that they are discriminating against individuals based on their gender. In this essay, I shall discuss many factors relevant to the argument that the English language systematically degrades and devalues women. One possible argument in agreement with this statement is that male words and their female equivalents are often asymmetrical in their connotations and†¦show more content†¦Even the word ‘female’ is a marked term derived from ‘male’, and ‘women’ is derived form ‘men’. This repetitive format stems from the fact England has always been a patriarchal society, where female liberation is a relatively new idea, and as a result the English language still strengthens and perpetuates sexist attitudes. However, it is possible to argue that this is gradually changing, and the language is becoming less discriminate, because many marked terms such as ‘authoress’ are dying out; this is a sign of changing attitudes in society. Another illustration of how the English language devalues women more than it does men is that there is a vast amount of insulting lexical usages for females, often with no equivalents for males, and usually with increased negative connotations compared to the insults aimed at males. For example, there are innumerable sexual insults such as ‘whore’, ‘slag’ and ‘slut’ that portray the view that women are sex objects. Lexis that denotes a man’s sexual lifestyle are incontestably more positive in general, for example ‘stud’, ‘player’ and ‘Casanova’. The idea that women are less significant than men is conveyed in the largeShow MoreRelatedEssay on Criminological Theories13456 Words   |  54 PagesBritish criminologist, proposed the idea that criminals are shorter, weigh less, and â€Å"mentally defective,† wrote The English Convic: A Statistical Study (1913). Hooten, E.A.: (1887-1954) Anthr opologist and neo-Lombrosian, proposed the idea that crime is caused by physical inferiority, wrote Crime and the Man (1939). Mednick, Sarnoff: Developed the best-known and most systematically stated and tested modern biosocial theory. Chapter 4 Psychological Theories Terms 14 California Psychological

The Spanish Colonization Of Latin America - 1270 Words

Because the Indians and Spanish lived in different areas in Latin America, the Indian culture and society did not change significantly. Or did there society change? The Spanish colonizers had a huge influence on the indigenous peoples of Mexico and Peru’s, culture, language, traditions, religion, even on their native food. One can say that this came into being shortly after Columbus discovered the New World. The Spanish conquistadors, who sailed with Columbus to the New World, were the first to leave their mark on the new territory. We still see some of these traditions in today’s society. The Spanish taught the Indians of their oral traditions of legends and jokes, music, food, beliefs, and customs. The Indians even picked up on their native tongue, Spanish, and used it as their own and still do to this day. There are many things in the Mexican culture which have contributed to the shaping and molding of the modern Latino society, such as the Mexican history, culture, language, religion, and traditions. The Indigenous culture is not simply a blend of Mexico used to be, but the results of a unique historical process that developed with an originality all its own. This culture was divided into many different social classes after the Spanish took the reins. Like they started to develop a governmental system for the Indigenous people and they started to tax them with the Bourbon Reforms. Many Indigenous people hated the thought of this so they took matters in to their ownShow MoreRelatedThe Spanish Colonization Of Latin America Essay1270 Words   |  6 PagesBecause the Indians and Spanish lived in different areas in Latin America, the Indian culture and society did not change significantly. Or did there society change? The Spanish colonizers had a huge influence on the indigenous peoples of Mexico and Peru’s, culture, language, traditions, religion, even on their native food. One can say that this came into being shortly after Columbus discovered the New World. The Spanish conquistadors, who sailed with Columbus to the New World, were the first toRead MoreThe Inequality Of Latin America1673 Words   |  7 Pagesâ€Å"In the 1500s, Spanish and Portuguese colonizers imposed their language, their religion, and their social institutions on the indigenous Americans and enslaved Africans, people who labored for them in mines and fields and who served them, too, at table and in bed† (Chasteen 5). Many people would say this is where inequality in Latin America began, with colonization. However, colonization is just a small piece of the roots of inequality of the region, which actually started with the natives of theRead MoreThe Conflict Between Aztecs And Incas1745 Words   |  7 Pagesco nsolidation of a system of states in Latin America, it is necessary to to back in history and analyze the distribution of power within the period even before the colonization. Despite our post Columbus state formation history of Latin America that has taught that the â€Å"real order† was established after the colonization, we have to understand that there already existed a consolidated power and order in the region, which in fact, it was a key factor for the widespread of Spanish power. As Charles Jones establishedRead MoreThe Importance Of Globalization In Latin America1276 Words   |  6 Pages Latin America is rich in indigenous diversity and cultural traditions. There are hundreds of dialects spoken by indigenous communities in many regions of Latin America. Language is important because it is the way its speaker view the world and the culture that surrounds them. In Latin American indigenous communities language is also very important because it is the way cultures save memories, express emotions, share traditions, and pass on knowledge(Kung, Sherzer). All over the world language, ofRead MoreReligion in Latin America; the Age of Discovery and Conquest (1492-1597)1058 Words   |  5 Pages and conduct of the Spanish during the Age of Discovery and Conquest (1492-1579). The colonial church provided control and a standard of conduct and living for the new world. In fact, the colonial church had even more power in Spanish America then it did in Spain. Why this is important though, is because it limited the possibility of rebellion and opposition. As long as the church was i n place, there was Spanish order, and as long as there was Spanish order, the colonization process could continueRead MoreEffects Of The Age Of Exploration1195 Words   |  5 Pagesothers, their land were invaded and lost many lives. The Spanish and the Portuguese are two main leaders of Europe that began the movement of exploration and colonization. Because of their actions, regions like Latin America and West Africa were at a deep disadvantage, being control by other country. But because of the age of exploration, new things are discovered that prosper other places. The interactions during the age of exploration in Latin Africa redefined the identities of Europeans by the fallRead MoreEssay on Ethnicity and Latin America1140 Words   |  5 PagesEthnicity and Latin America Latin America and the American colonies were â€Å"tamed† based on completely different ideologies. From a Latin American perspective, the most important of the European explorers were of course, the Spanish and the Portuguese. These explorers arrived in Christopher Columbus’ â€Å"new world† with the express goal of bringing glory and prestige to their homeland. In stark contrast, settlers came to the colonies seeking freedom from the religious persecution in Europe. TheRead MoreThe Culture Of Latin America Essay1630 Words   |  7 Pagesculture of Latin America is multi-faceted and rich. More than 300 million Spanish speakers reside in Latin America and are spread across a vast geographic region; this makes it tough at times to explain Latin American culture. Though, there are some living standards and ways of observing life which is in common all over the majority of the area. Latin America comprises of 21 main countries. Major languages spoken in Latin Amer ica are French, Portuguese, and Spanish. The Latin America region is aRead MoreEuropean Exploration And Conquest Of Latin America1277 Words   |  6 PagesBefore European exploration and conquest in Latin America the indigenous people lived off the land working mainly to support themselves. Despite having conflicts of their own, most Latin American tribes would coexist peacefully relative to what was to come. Some, more advanced civilizations, such as the Aztec, did have conditions somewhat similar to those that would soon spread to the rest of Latin America. When European settlers started to take over the Americas, however, conditions got markedly worseRead MoreThe Effects of Westernization Essay example934 Words   |  4 PagesAsia, Africa, and Latin America have all been influenced by the transmission of Western cultural values through direct as well as indirect contact. By means of colonization Asia, Africa and Latin America were particularly affected as Western values were e nforced upon the populations by colonial assault. During this era traditional cultural pursuits declined and stagnated in the face of Western conquests. The attitude is much the same now as it was then, â€Å"However disagreeable the â€Å"medicine† may

Free Beef Cattle Productivity Essay Free Essays

string(35) " it helps the animals gain weight\." INTRODUCTION Producing high quality beef, which corresponds to the customers’ needs, has become extremely essential for the farmers. Red Meat in Scotlandnow faces competition from high quality imported products from countries such as USA, Braziland Argentina, even the meat producers from other parts of United Kingdom. Recent surveys indicate that the ‘tenderness of beef’ cuts at Retail Stores and Food Services shops have high variations (Morgan et al, 1991; Hamby, 1992). We will write a custom essay sample on Free Beef Cattle Productivity Essay or any similar topic only for you Order Now National Beef Quality Audit ranked ‘inadequate tenderness’ as the second most important Beef Quality Problem (Smith et al, 1995). Owing to the high competition from international producers, and increasing demands of customers, Scottish beef manufacturers are facing a tough time. Producing high quality beef at low prices has become one of the major concerns among the producers. In order to respond to the needs and to maintain the market share, producers will need to resort to methods such as cloning, nuclear transplantation and vitamin supplementation. However, there is always a doubt, if the consumers will accept the enhanced beef? The purpose of this essay is to outline some of the most successful methods of improving beef-cattle productivity as well as understand what the likely response of customers may be. We also explore the various legislations on the use of beef cattle productivity enhancement methods. DIFFERENT METHODS OF IMPROVING PRODUCTIVITY One of the most common, yet advanced method of improving productivity of Beef-Cattle is ‘Embryo transfer’ also, referred as ‘ET’. First experimented in 1949, this method became commercialized only in 1970, when a European dual purposes breed of cattle gained recognition within a very short time period. Since then, ET technology has developed step by step and different techniques such as surgical recovery of Embryo, artificial insemination, rapid development of super-ovulation are being used. Since 1977, Embryo Transfer technique has been famous all over the world. (www.ezinearticles.com); Smith Nicholas (1983) Embryo Transfer is an advanced technique where ‘genetically superior’ and sexually mature female is injected with ‘exogenous’ hormones, so as to produce more ova which will then get successfully fertilized inside her, either naturally or artificially, are removed evaluated and transferred into the reproductive tract of surrogate mother, where it is developed into a mature calf. (www.ezinarticles.com) Studies suggest that Vitamin D (VITD) supplementation in beef cattle is a successful method of increasing the longissimus calcium concentration by as much as 50% as compared to the muscle calcium levels from non-supplemented steers. This results in improving the overall meat tenderness. The researchers figured out that the VITD induced tenderization of meat, is a result of activation of calpain proteases, however, it would be inappropriate to rule out other possible mechanisms that may contribute to the overall tenderness of meat (Ray et al, 1999) Another interesting finding, experimented on Japanese Black Cattle shows that Vitamin C dose of approximately 20mg to 60mg/kg of weight, can lead to better quality of meat. Vitamin C should be coated with digestible coating which can absorbed by the intestinal tract after it passes through the stomach. ‘Soyabean-hydrogenated oil and fat’ forms a desirable covering material. Results of such doses showed no significant difference between the Cattle supplemented with Vitamin C and the non-supplemented steer. However, the quality of meat showed significant differences in fat marbling (Shimofuri), luster, firmness and texture of the meat. (www.freepatentsonline.com) (Methods of improving beef quality) Another method used for improving quality is ‘Hydrodyne Process’. This process uses a small amount of explosive, so as to generate a minor shock wave in water. This shock wave passes thorough the objects that form an acoustic match with water. It was found out, that four beef muscles, namely Longissimus, Semimembranosus, Biceps Femoris and Semitendinosus, when exposed to either 50, 75 or 100g of explosives got significant tenderization. A significant 72% reduction in shear force was observed for the longissimus muscle using 100g of explosives. In other three muscles, reduction in shear force with magnitudes of 30 to 59% improvements was observed. Results suggest that using the ‘Hydrodyne process’ for tenderizing beef is a novel opportunity for the meat industry to produce ‘Tender Meat’ (Solomon M.B et al, 1997). Having said that, it is also well-known that intrinsic quality attributes of beef, especially the tenderness of beef, depends to a great extent on post-mortem factors, such as Temperature, pH, Proteolysis that result in degradation of beef during the post-mortem ageing. However, researchers have also proved that Quality characteristics, depend directly on the muscle biology of live animals which is further regulated by the genetic, nutritional and rearing factors (Geay et al, 2001); (Maltin et al, 2003) A significant method of improving productivity is ‘Cloning’. In technical terms, Cloning is the production of multiple genetically identical animals (Robl Spell, 2001). Genetically identical animals have been in production for over 30 years by using the technique of dividing embryos into two or more portions, so as to produce multiple embryos (Robl Spell, 2001). The technique, also known as ‘Splitting’ did not manage to generate as much public interest or concern, as has the current technique of ‘Nuclear Transplantation’ which is most commonly referred as ‘Cloning’. Nuclear Transplantation has the potential of producing genetically identical animals in unlimited numbers (Chan 1999; Cibelli et al, 1998; Wilmut et al, 1997). Somatic Cell nuclear transplantation cloning has great promise, however, the limitations, such as low pregnancy rates and low calf survival rates restrict is current use. Somatic Cell cloning is still in the research phase and it is of utmost importance, that there is necessary research done, in order to improve survival rates and further evaluate variations in results before the commercialization of this technique could take place. Small scale commercialization of this technology will be the second phase where they multiply animals of high value. When efficiency and quality of embryos improves, cryopreservation will become feasible and large number of embryos will be sold in straws, just as semen is today (Robl Spell, 2001). Another interesting and highly controversial topic is the ‘Antibiotic Debate’. For years now, farmers have been feeding their animals with small doses of antibiotics, as it helps the animals gain weight. You read "Free Beef Cattle Productivity Essay" in category "Essay examples" The weight gain of animals is highly beneficial for the farmers, as it helps increase their profit margins (http://www.pbs.org). Antibiotics like ‘tetracycline’ are fed to animals to help kill ‘flora’, a bacterium that is found in the intestine of animals. This results in better utilization of the eaten food and leads to increase in weight. Some other subtherapeutic antibiotics include tylosin, monensin, chlortetracycline given for growth promotion and prophylactic purposes (Dolliver A Gupta S, 2008) The constant controversy surrounding the use of subtherapeutic antibiotics for farm animals is whether its use causes the rise of drug-resistant bacteria; something that may lead to a widespread health problem (http://www.junkscience.com). Day by day, evidence linking use of sub-therapeutic antibiotics for food animals and human health risks is increasing. Researchers have found that, constant use of such antibiotics for food animals makes the bacteria in them resistant to drugs. If such animal’s meat is eaten by someone as an improperly cooked food, the person may fall ill and may not respond to the treatment possible through antibiotics otherwise (http://www.pbs.org). LEGISLATION ON USE OF DIFFERENT METHODS for IMPROVING BEEF CATTLE PRODUCTIVITY In 1985, the European Union imposed a ban on the use of growth-promoting hormones in beef production (Caduff Bernauer, 2004). European Union’s regulatory activity first started its activity in this area in 1980 after a unilateral ban imposed by four EU member countries (Italy,Netherlands,Denmark, andGreece) in absence of EU wide legislation. Regulatory heterogeneity within the European Union ended up creating conflict among different member states. Countries that possessed more permissive hormone regulation claimed that more strict regulations in other countries were helpful in creating non-tariff barriers to trade (Brand Ellerton, 1989). At the same time, various scandals related to illegal hormone sale, use of hormones in Livestock breeding grew into a controversial public health issue (Caduff Bernauer, 2004). Following the consumer boycotts against hormone beef led to a considerable drop in the prices as well as the sales of beef in many European Union Countries. In response to the constituencies’ preference for hormone free beef, as well as constant media attention and lobbying done by the import-competing beef producers, EU member states that had stricter regulations, refused to relax their standards (Caduff Bernauer, 2004). The member states which indulged in producing hormone beef feared losing their European beef export markets due to the partial national autonomy of other countries for regulation of beef hormones coupled with the domestic political pressures. As a result, majority of EU countries agreed to the EU-wide hormone ban, exceptUnited Kingdom(Caduff Bernauer, 2004). However, the majority voting council of Agriculture Ministers, helped enable the regulators of EU to overcome the opposition ofUnited Kingdom. In order to avoid further market losses, food processors and retailers supported the Commission’s view and favored the stricter rules, instead of the Laxer and heterogeneous regulations (Caduff Bernauer, 2004). Consumer attitude towards enhanced BeeF Research shows that consumers are willing to pay more for the beef that is known to have increased tenderness (Boleman et al, 1997). Trained sensory panel evaluations reveal that enhancing beef steak with phosphate/salt-containing solution results in a more tender and juicy end product (Jensen et al, 2002). However, Robbins et al (2002)’s reports show, that enhancement done with phosphate/salt solution resulted in damaging effects on attributes such as color of the beef. For European customers color attribute is one of the most important factors while purchasing fresh meat (Glitsch, 2000). Carpenter et al (2001) also confirm that color red is preferred by European customers while making the purchasing decision. For consumers, attributes such as color, visible fat, price and cut were the most important and influencing factors, they considered when making a purchase. Other attributes such as tenderness, flavor and juiciness, which were significantly increased by enhancement, were found to be of high importance with respect to the eating satisfaction of customers. Although there was some concern about the added ingredients, there is no doubt that enhancement leads to much tender and juicier beef. CONCLUSION During the course of this essay we have explored that increasing the beef quality without using antibiotics, growth hormones, cloning, vitamin supplementation seems to be a tough ask. Raising beef cattle without enhancement may not result in the quality of beef desired by the customers, and will also prove to be more expensive. On the other hand, it was also observed how important it is to work within the regulations. This is a dilemma which will need further research. Responding to customers’ needs may not be a wise option, as some researchers have found serious health risks; however, concrete evidence is yet to be discovered. REFERENCES v Bernauer T and Caduff L (2004) – European Food Safety: Multilevel Governance, ReNationalization, or Centralization? v Boleman S.J, Boleman S.L, Miller R.K, Taylor J.F, Cross H.R, Wheeler T.L, Koohmaraie M, Shackelford S.D, Miller M.F, West R.F, Johnson D.D and Savell J.W (1997) – Consumer evaluation of beef of known categories of tenderness; Journal of Animal Science v Carpenter C.E, Cornforth D.P and Whittier D (2001) – Consumer preferences for beef color and packaging did not affect eating satisfaction; Meat Science v Dolliver A.S Holly and Gupta C Satish (2008) – Journal of Environmental Quality v Glitsch K (2000) – Consumer perceptions of fresh meat quality: Cross-national comparison; British Food Journal v Hamby P (1992) – Palatability problems in restaurant beef v Jensen J, Robbins K, Ryan K.J, Homco-Ryan C, McKeith F.K and Brewer M.S (2002) – Consumer attitude towards beef and acceptability of enhanced beef; Dept. of Animal Science v Morgan J.B, Wheeler T.L, Koohmaraie M, Crouse J.D, Savell J.W (1993) – Effect of castration on myofibrillar protein turnover, endogenous proteinase activities, and muscle growth in bovine skeletal muscle; Journal of Animal Science v Nicholas F.W and Smith C (1983) – Increased rates of genetic change in dairy cattle by embryo transfer and splitting, Animal Science, Cambridge University Press v Ray F.K, Swanek S.S, Morgan J.B, Owens F.N, Gill D.R, Strasia C.A and Dolezal H.G (1999)– Vitamin D3 Supplementation of Beef Steers Increases Longissimus Tenderness; Journal of Animal Science v Robl J.M and Spell A.R (2001) – Somatic Cell Cloning in the Beef Industry v Smith G.C, Savell J.W, Dolezal H.G, Field T.G, Gill D.R,GriffinD.B, Hale D.S, Morgan J.B, Northcutt S.L and Tatum J.D (1995) – The Final Report of National Beef Quality Audit v Solomon M.B, Long J.B and Eastridge J.S (1997) – The Hydrodyne: a new process to improve beef tenderness; Journal of Animal Science v www.ezinearticles.com : Embryo Transfer – A new technique for improving the Cattle Production, accessed on 20.11.2010 v www.freepatentsonline.com : Methods of improving Beef Quality, accessed on 21.11.2010 v http://www.pbs.org : Is your Meat SafeAntibiotic Debate, accessed on 25/11/2010 v http://www.junkscience.com : Milloy, S (2001) – Where’s the beef on farm antibiotics?, accessed on 25/11/2010 How to cite Free Beef Cattle Productivity Essay, Essay examples

Cash Flow Horizons Conservatism Research -Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: Discuss About The Cash Flow Horizons Conservatism Research? Answer: Introducation As per the financial accounting principles, there might happen that the financial statement of organizations has assets that do not have excessive valuations. For ascertainment of value of assets, the carrying value of assets needs to be contrasted with some value concepts. Australian accounting standard boards under section 334 of Corporations Act, 2001 makes accounting standard AASB 136 impairment of assets. The objective of standards deals with prescribing the procedures that is applied by entity for ensuring that assets are not carried at more than recoverable amount. If the amount that is recorded after the sale of assets is less than carrying amount, then the assets are carried at recoverable amount. With reference to this, assets can be explained as impaired. Organization are required to recognize the impairment as per this standard as mandatory disclosures and time of recognizing impairment loss. If the recoverable amount is less than carrying value of assets, then the impairment is realised. The amount should be higher of fair value less value of assets in use and cost of selling. If the carrying value of an asset is more than their recoverable amount, then according to Paragraph 59 of AASB 136, then the carrying value of assets should be minimized to its former. As per AASB 2014, then such minimisation is adjudicated as an impairment loss. Nonetheless, there is variation in techniques that is used in variation of recording impairment loss and this is dependant upon fact that whether assets is recorded at costs and is pursuant to model of revaluation. Impairment loss needs to be realised immediately as per paragraph 60 of AASB 136. This is done unless the assets are carried at revalued amount that is ain compliance with another standard. The model of revaluation is denoted in standard that is in AASB 116. Therefore, as per the other standard, the impairment loss in relation to other assets are treated as decrease in revaluation (Banker et al., 2016). Revaluation model and cost model are the two methods that are used for impairing the assets. According to paragraph 61 of AASB 136, the cost model make use of cost for recording any assets that are impaired. Impairment of assets needs to be immediately recognized in profit and loss. It is indicative of the fact that loss associated with the asset impairment should be realized as expenditures in the income statement of organization. According to paragraph 60 of AASB 136, the impairment of assets such as plant, property and equipment is made at carrying value of re valued amount, then according to revaluation model, then the decrease in revaluation and treatment of loss related to impairment is identical. For the purpose of restatement in initial stage, the impairment loss in relation to assets that are impaired that is recorded in income statement. This is done for the reason that loss does not exceed the amount of revaluation surplus for the identical assets. The leftover account in revaluation surplus is accomplished by debiting the leftover of revaluation surplus account. Prior to recognizing the loss associated with impairment as expenditure in income statement, the surplus is applied and related to assets along with deferred tax liability. Nonetheless, there can be many instances, when the carrying value of assets in past is lower than recoverable amount of assets have been written down in value. It is essential on art of organization to ascertained any signs of loss of impairment that is realized in the past for any assets. However, this would exempt goodwill value and its existence in organization. All this is done as per Paragraph 110 of AASB 136. The reversal of loss of impairment of assets according to paragraph 111 of AASB 136requires external as well as internal signs of impairment. Some of the signals depicting assets impairment involves significant changes that involve or might have positive impact on organization, any rise in assets marketing value, favourable changes made in the utilization of assets, decline ion interest rate of market, and deviation in economic performance of assets (Crawford, 2016). There are two different models for carrying out loss of impairment of assets comprising of revaluation and cost model. Carrying value of assets cannot be raised beyond its value of depreciation for asset impairment in relation to cost model. Nonetheless, it is essential to consider the fact that policy of depreciation needs to be accounted in this case. Therefore, according to paragraph 119 of AASB 136, it is need to realise the impairment loss reversal as an item of expenditure in the income statement. This can be explained with the help of an instance, suppose an organization on 30th June 2014, has incurred an impairment loss on machinery of $ 13000. $ 11333 has been recorded as an assets carrying value that involves cost of $ $50,000 by deducting depreciation $25,667 and impairment accumulated loss at $ 13000. For period of six years, the rate of depreciation has been assumed at rate of 10%. The carrying asset value in this case is arrived at $ 20000. If the carrying value of assets needs to be restated at $ 18000, then the impairment loss that has been realized previously at $ 6667 can be reversed, since the recoverable value is more than loss of impairment. The impairment loss reversal in this case will be credited and loss arising from accumulated impairment is debited with $ 6667 amount. It has been assessed that recoverable amount of assets is recorded at $ 110000. Equipment, depreciation account and loss from impairment needs to be debited with amount $ 10000 each for recording impairment loss reversal of $ 20000. Deferred tax liability and revaluation surplus account will be credited in the income statement with value of $ 14000 and $ 6000 respectively. References Banker, R. D., Basu, S., Byzalov, D. (2016). Implications of Impairment Decisions and Assets' Cash-Flow Horizons for Conservatism Research.The Accounting Review,92(2), 41-67. Collison, D., Jansson, A., Larsson-Olaison, U., Power, D. M., Cooper, C., Gray, R., ... Jonnergrd, K. business-law. The Modern Corporation Statement on Accounting. Crawford, C. W. (2016). ACTG 201.05: Principles of Financial Accounting. Munter, P. (2017). FASB Simplifies Goodwill Impairment Accounting for Public Business Entities.Journal of Corporate Accounting Finance,28(5), 63-68.

Issue Pertinent To Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (PPACA)

Question : For this assignment, you will select a topic (see list below for possible topics) and identify an existing federal health policy problem in that area. Then develop a paper that addresses the following: Analyze the role of research information in reshaping that policy Propose changes/improvements in the existing public law dealing with that policy, or propose a new policy. A good starting point is to analyze a current issue pertinent to Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (PPACA). Possible topics include the following: Long-term care Healthcare costs Access to care Quality of care Obesity epidemics / pandemics Health insurance Your well-written paper should be twelve pages in length and conform toCSU-Global Guide to Writing and APA Requirements. Include five to eight current scholarly references (not more than five years old) in addition to the course textbook. Remember that you must support your thinking/opinions and prior knowledge with references; all facts must be supported; in-text references used throughout the assignment must be included in an APA-formatted reference list. You should also consider additional reference articles from the popular press such as theWall Street JournalandWashington Post. The CSU-Global Library is a good place to find these references. Before developing your paper, review the grading rubric. Answer : Introduction On March 23, 2010, the U.S. President Barack Obama signed the first US comprehensive health care reform bill, the PPACA (Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act) into law after repeated attempts and failures by the previous Presidents of the United States of America. In 2008, an estimated 46.3 million US individuals were uninsured and a further 25 million were underinsured (Connors and Gostin, 2010). The PPACA was proposed to expand health insurance coverage to more individuals through a variety of schemes and measures. According to the act, state-level health insurance exchanges were to be created under the PPACA and they were to play a major role in sale and purchase of health insurance when the act became operational. The purpose of this report is to focus on the health insurance coverage issues pertinent to the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (PPACA). And further examines how the issues can be addressed effectively by the PPACA. Features of the PPACA To make insurance affordable to people of all statures, PPACA offers sliding-scale subsidies and limits out of the pocket spending. And to increase the number of increased individuals, the premium rates were lowered and it was proposed that individuals without insurance coverage will pay a penalty of 695 USD or 2.5% of household income. One of the important features of the PPACA was to expand Medicaid to individuals with comes of up to 133% of the Federal poverty level and thus covering low income adults without children who were previously not eligible for coverage by Medicaid. This offers standardized benefits of Medicaid and a minimum package of essential services (Connors and Gostin, 2010). Another important feature was the plan to establish state-level health insurance exchanges. American Health Benefit Exchanges and Small Business Health Operations Program (SHOP) Exchanges were to be formed in all states and would act as market places for consumers to shop for and purchase health insurance at affordable rates. These exchanges would provide the consumer with the necessary details, and private health insurance choices. Low-income US citizens who are not eligible for coverage under Medicaid were offered private health insurance benefits through these exchanges by providing with subsidies and credits for premiums. For small businesses with fewer than hundred employees, tax credits were provided for offering insurance. The PPACA prohibits the insurers from limiting or denying insurance coverage to children under nineteen with pre-existing medical conditions and allows young adults under the age of twenty six to remain covered under their parents health plan. It ends insurers ability to withdraw coverage due to an honest mistake made on part of the insured, restricts annual limits and eliminates life time amount that insurance will pay for certain conditions. The PPACA offers a rebate of 250 USD to Medicare part D enrolees efficiently closing the coverage gap in Medicare part D. Issues pertinent to the PPACA The state-level health insurance exchanges play the central role in the private health insurance reform of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (PPACA). The functioning of these exchanges as planned is mandatory for expanding health insurance coverage in the US, improve the quality of coverage and health care in the nation and reduce the cost of health care. But there are some issues that the Federal and state governments face in implementing these health insurance exchanges. The Commonwealth Fund, in its report has mentioned eight issues in implementing these exchanges that include: the proper governance of the exchanges, adverse selection (against and within the exchanges), ways to make self-funded insurance plans compatible with the exchanges, ways to make the exchanges attractive to employers, exercising of regulatory authority by exchanges, type of information made available to consumers and employers by these exchanges, ways to determine eligibility, ways to reduce th e administrative costs, costs of their uses and attract funding (Jost, 2010). Governance of the exchanges The exchanges in each state could be outsourced to a private agency under the PPACA for some of its functions such as managing the website, processing enrolments and premium payments while certification activities are inherent government functions. Any publicly run exchange is subject to the state administrative and operational laws but it is important that the health insurance exchanges be flexible and agile to react quickly to market change concerned with insurance. So the state administrative and operational laws can be made flexible with respect to these exchanges. But again it is important that public law pertaining to ensure transparency, public participation and to avoid corruption must apply so that the management is apolitical and professional. Exchanges can also outsource mechanical, non-discretionary functions such as premium billing, premium collections, data processing and customer services to private agencies. Avoiding adverse selection It is important to avoid adverse selection both against and within the exchanges. It is one of the greatest issues the exchanges face. State regulation of an individual as well as small-business market outside of these exchanges should also be identical to the corresponding regulation inside the exchanges to an extent. It is necessary to retain a range of coverage choice within the exchange that would appeal to variety of population. By this way, it is possible to eliminate the coverage market outside of the state-level exchanges. An efficient risk adjustment system to eliminate adverse selection within and against the exchange among participating insurers and non-participating insurers must be designed by the HHS (Baker, 2011). Ways to make the Exchanges work for employers In addition to focussing on serving the needs of individual customers, it is also important that these exchanges take care of the relationship between the insurers, the employers and the employees. It is mandatory for the exchanges to make available qualified health plans for the employers qualified for coverage. In a provision called the SHOP (Small Business Health Option Program) exchange, it is required small employers be assisted in enrolling their employees for health plans offered in the small business market. And to overcome adverse selection issues, the exchanges in the state have to have a maximum number of enrolees which is possible only if they enrol both individual customers as well as employees of small business employers. This is possible only when the packages are made attractive to the employers and actively marketed. Possible recommendations include offer of aggregated bill to small business employers when they enrol their employees. The aggregated bill must cover the premiums of all the employees of the firm. Or allow the employers to pay a percentage of the premium required with the employee paying the rest. Lower-income employees can be offered greater support by their employers. Regulatory Authority of the Exchanges The PPACA permits the exchanges to offer only qualified health insurance plans. And it is mandatory that these plans meet all the regulatory requirements on the health insurance issuers imposed by the PPACA both in the individual market as well the small group market. It must also meet certain additional requirements such as accreditation, marketing, adequacy and quality improvement (Rosenbaum, 2011). And certification of a health plan is possible only if the plan determines that the particular plan through the exchange is in best interests of the qualified individuals or small business employers in that particular state. And according to the act, the exchanges have no rights to deny certifying a plan because it is fee for service kind of plan and they have no right to impose price controls. The state-level exchanges can make use of their certifying power to make sure that the health plans offered meet all the statutory requirements for qualifying and that they do not impose unrequited premium increase on their customers. The state exchanges should be given the option of being an active purchaser by the legislation authorizing them and must not impose all insurers in the market on them. Type of information made available to the consumers The clear description of the benefits and limitations of any particular health insurance plan must be made readily available and accessible easily. The opinions of the participating members must be taken into account and come up with plans that are satisfying to those who have serious health or financial problems. The opinions of the employers must be valued too. Eligibility determinations Under the PPACA, the Medicaid eligibility expands dramatically (Hofer, Abraham, Moscovice, 2011). The consumers, be it individuals or families that approach the exchanges usually need financial assistance in purchasing health plans. Medicaid assistance is available for those with an income level of up to 133% of Federal poverty level. Children with pre-existing medical conditions up to the age of 19 in general and in some states up to 21 are covered under CHIP (Childrens Health Insurance Program). Children are eligible under CHIP if their families have income level of 200% of the poverty level and more in some states. Sometimes parents receive premium tax credits while the children are covered under Medicaid or CHIP for income of 400% of poverty level. It is mandatory that the subsidy determination process doesnt stand in the way of those who are unsubsidized. The insurers market outside of the exchange will continue to be available for those who are not entitled to the subsidy. These individuals must be given a fair chance and choices to completely fore go the subsidy application process or if they choose to apply with the exchange then they shouldnt be put through too much screening so that they do not face any impediments. It is the responsibility of the exchange to take care of the continued enrolment of individuals for health plans and tax credits. Administrative costs One of the prime purposes and hopes of advocates in relation to the PPACA is that establishment of health insurance exchanges would reduce the cost of health care spending and health insurance. But in the long run, especially during recession and after the global economic crisis and when the rates are in excess of the rate of growth of the economy, this kind of cost reductions is not sustainable. In order to succeed the exchanges should be able to offer competitive health insurance plans. That is, plans offered by the exchanges must provide as much value for money as the insurance plans available in outside in the non-exchange market. The plans are all qualified health plans and thus of very high quality but the key factor that determines whether or not an individual takes up the plan offered by them is the premium that is required to be paid (Jost, 2010). And these exchanges will have an important role in creating, managing and rating the plans. Also they have regulatory responsibil ities that will require resources. Administrative costs can also be kept nominal in addition to providing high quality services. This can be done by motivating insurers to offer premium rates in the exchange lower than those available outside by providing the insurers with large exchange market enough for others to cut down on their premiums. Further, exchanges could perform functions such as enrolling participants, subsidy application and determination process, web portal management, premium collection and marketing further reducing the administrative costs. Another cost saving measure that exchanges can do is to try to eliminate insurance agents and brokers commissions. The exchanges must be attractive to the employers. This can be done by coordinating care using quality improvement strategies, reducing the use of unnecessary care and thus reducing the costs. Other issues The PPACA embodies a new social contract of health care, with the government as the insurer for the people below poverty line and the elderly through markets, individual responsibility, choices and private ownership. It embodies a fair share approach to health care financing (Baker, 2011). In case of Affordable Care Act, the deserving poor concept was eliminated from the Medicaid standards. Ones ability to pay for health insurance will now matter more than it did before. In the face of rising health care costs and increasing financial inequality this was an incremental step. It point towards individuals to be as healthy as they can as envisioned by what the act mentions as individual responsibility. It is important that the exchanges maintain maximum number of enrolees and have an increased percentage of consumers participating in health insurance plans through them rather than through external agencies. This will result in the exchanges holding greater market power, greater economies of scale, lessened risk pools and increased stability. The PPACAs health care exchanges offer the consumers structures choices of health care plans. An important decision would be to consider their views and decide upon whether to further the existing structured choices or offer greater flexibility in the plans. In the PPACA, the patient reforms bill passed by US will moderate the effect that unemployment rate has on the probability of insurance coverage (Cawley, Moriya, Simon, 2013). The Act has incentives that employers can offer employees; it provides subsidies for coverage of families with low income. There may be a slight increase in the unemployment rate though not very significant changes. The PPACA must clarify to what extent it pre-empts in general the state reform initiatives and in particular the employer mandates. Otherwise, the already impenetrable ERISA pre-emption would have been made more complicated the Congresss PPACA (Chirba, 2010). There are three dominant conceptions of health insurance. The first is that health insurance primarily serves to tackle harms to health making health insurance a means to pay for health care that prevents and improves health problems most cost effectively. The second is financial security where in health insurance is something that is used to mitigate loss of wealth from high health care costs. Finally, being highly sensitive to the possibility of adverse effects and using health insurance as something to primarily protect against unavoidable or sudden health risks. This, known as the Brute Luck theory seeks to preserve incentives by the individuals to prevent risk. The premium pricing is based on guidelines from these theories. This Conceptual pluralism (Hoffman, 2011) is manifested by the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act and it complicates the implementation of the act as it requires the regulators to manage tensions and make trade-offs among the goals. When translated in to policies, the three theories will at times conflict each other creating discordance. People in the US are generally ambivalent about their views on the reform bill. This can be greatly attributed to the complexity of the law. Very few people including physicians truly understand the true purpose of the law. Another reason may be that people identify with the three conceptual insurance policies and while they support one concept they are not very much in favour of the others. But eliminating this conceptual pluralism isnt advisable either because it would make the theory not likeable to those in favour of the neglected conception. The best regulatory method would be to prioritize which conceptions are to be used but not necessarily stick to just one and eliminate the others. The phrase in the law stipulating subsidies to help those with incomes less than 400 percent of poverty line is available only in the exchanges established by the state came into a controversy quite recently. It was argued that the rest of the act states that subsidies would be available for both state run and Federal run exchanges. Since most of the states opted let the federal government run their agencies, this phrase could mean making insurance unaffordable for millions of people and threaten the laws viability in the entire act. There are four pending cases in the Supreme Court pertaining to the IRS rule in Patient Protection and Affordable care Act authorizing tax credits and cost-sharing subsidies to purchase health insurance in federal-level health insurance exchanges (The Washington Post). Conclusion Affording everyone the right to quality health care irrespective of income or health status is a definitely an excellent idea. It should become a widely shared social norm, as it is in a lot of other countries. The implementers of the Affordable Care Act have great power to shape the future of health insurance and medical care in US. Attention on choices needed to curtail increasing costs, improving the quality, and changing of physician and hospital incentive structures are crucial aspects of the reform bill that will have to be carefully governed to have powerful effects on the economy and the populations health and these cannot be ignored by US government. References Connors, E., and Gostin, L. (2010). Health Care ReformA Historic Moment in US Social Policy.JAMA,303(24), 2521. doi:10.1001/jama.2010.856 Jost, T. (2010). Health Insurance Exchanges and the Affordable Act: Eight Difficult Issues. The Commonwealth Fund. Rosenbaum, S. (2011). The Patient protection and Affordable Care Act: Implications for Public Health Policy and Practice. Public Health Rep, 126(1). Hofer, A., Abraham, J., Moscovice, I. (2011). Expansion of Coverage under the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act and Primary Care Utilization.Milbank Quarterly,89(1), 69-89. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0009.2011.00620.x Baker, T. (2011). Health Insurance, Risk, and Responsibility after the Patient Care and Protection Act. University of Pennsylvania Law Review, 159(6). Cawley, J., Moriya, A., Simon, K. (2013). The Impact of the Macro economy on Health Insurance Coverage: Evidence from the Great Recession.Health Econ.,24(2), 206-223. doi:10.1002/hec.3011 Hoffman, A. (2011). Three Models of Health Insurance: The Conceptual Pluralism of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act. University of Pennsylvania Law Review, Barnett, R. (2011). Turning Citizens into Subjects: Why the Health Insurance Mandate is Unconstitutional. Mercer Law Review, 62. Chirba, M. (2010). ERISA Pre-emption of State Play or Pay Mandates: How PPACA Clouds an Already Confusing Picture. Journal of Health Care Law Policy, 13, 393-421.